Human life is very rare to get. Having attained that life, noble goal is essential in order to make it successful. That noble goal being puruṣārtha is fourfold viz ., dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa. Among the four principal objectives of life, dharma is the most important objective. The term dharma is an indicator of various meanings. In the Ṛgveda[1], religious ordinances or rites like agnihotra are indicated by the word dharma. Here itself anuṣṭhāna[2] and agnisādhanakarma[3] are indicated by the word dharma. The fulfilment of duties as laid down by the ancient scriptures is meant by the word anuṣṭhāna[4]. The rule to be followed in practicing the religious ordinances is indicated by the word dharma in the fifth maṇḍala of Ṛgveda[5]. The texts on Dharmasūtras[6] say that dharma is that which is being laid down by the Vedic scriptures, established by the Smṛtis, and observed by the noble. Smṛtis[7] are the interpreters of Dharmasūtras where there is an elaboration of the precepts as explained in the latter. Śaṅkara while commenting on “dharmānna pramaditavyam”[8]says that err not from duty. Because duty is what ought to be done and error is omitting to do it and error ought not to be committed. It is said in Taittirīyāraṇyaka[9] that “dharma is the firm foundation upon which the Universe rests, the subjects approach the pious, sins are destroyed through dharma, everything in this world rests upon dharma and hence dharma is considered as the highest”. Sāyaṇācārya comments on this saying that dharma in the form of creation of ponds, wells etc is considered as the refuge of all creatures. That is why the subjects approach those who are engaged in dharma for deciding on the dispute between dharma and adharma. Sins are destroyed through dharma in the form of atonement. Hence, dharma is rated high. In Mahābhārata[10], Bhīṣma tells Yudhiṣṭhira that dharma is called so as it is preserved or held by all. In the words of Mārīca “rāmo vigrahavān dharmaḥ sādhuḥ satyaparākramaḥ[11]”,Vālmīki has defined dharma completely in the form of obeying the words of father, doing good to brother, doing that which is beneficial to the subjects etc. Thus, the terminology of dharma is very wide and extensive. Even a weak person can become a victor with the aid of dharma. That is why dharma is considered as puruṣārtha. Among the four puruṣārthas, dharma is considered as the foremost as it is capable of providing beatitude and giving protection from all troubles.
Artha, the wealth, which is earned by lawful means, to be spent on the deserved, and enjoyed, is the second puruṣārtha. The Ṛgveda[12] tells the bad consequences of not distributing the wealth over those who have been declared as deserved by the ancient scriptures. Here the term vitta has been used. Enjoying wealth without giving to the deserved and needy is being condemned. The importance of artha has been established in Taittirīyabrāhmaṇa[13] which says that the entity of a person depends upon wealth. Giving money to the teacher for attaining education is being advised in Taittirīyopaniṣad[14]. In Manusmṛti[15], wealth is being counted as one among the five reasons because of which a person gets respect. Here the term vitta has been commented as the money earned by lawful means by Kullūkabhaṭṭa. Because misuse of money includes the money earned by unlawful means, giving it to the one who is not deserved and confiscating from the deserved. In Rāmāyaṇa[16], from the advice of Rāma to Bharata on polity, it is clearly understood that the noble expenditure lies in giving money to the deserved. It has also been advised to spend according to the income. Importance of artha is emphasised in Mahābhārata[17] where Arjuna says that rest of the three puruṣārthas are achieved through artha only. Thus, the inevitability of artha has been well described in the ancient scriptures.
The desire for the worldly objects is considered as kāma[18]. While commenting on the word kāma in Ṛgveda[19], Sāyaṇācārya has used the term sisṛkṣā. Without the desire of the Lord Almighty to create, the existence of world is impossible. So, the desire is the inspiration in all deeds. While commenting on the term kāma in Muṇḍakopaniṣad[20], Śaṅkarācārya says that kāma is that which directs a person towards those deeds which aim at the attainment of worldly objects. In Rāmāyaṇa[21], this term has been commented by Rāma in his commentary called “Tilaka” as “viṣayasantoṣalobha, which means the desire for the happiness through the attainment of worldly objects. The importance of kāma has been stressed by Bhīma in Mahābhārata[22] where it is clearly understood that without kāma, the desire to do dharma and the desire to earn money will not arise.
With regard to the fourth Puruṣārtha mokṣa, Vijňānabhikṣu says in Sāṅkhyasāra[23] that “mokṣa is not something that is confined in the heaven or under the earth or on the earth. With the diminution of all desires, the diminution of the motion of the thinking faculty is mokṣa”. By which one gets rid of sorrow is what is called mokṣa. With the destruction of all desires, there is no possibility of sorrow. The focus of the entire literature of Upaniṣad is on mokṣa. By describing the characteristic features of a person inflicted with the desire, Maitryupaniṣad[24] says that a person without the same is considered as mumukṣu. So, the desirelessness has to be achieved by the mumukṣu, says the commentator Rāmatīrtha. Thus, it is very clear that the lack of desire is mokṣa. In Bhagavadgītā[25], while commenting on the word mokṣa, Śaṅkarānanda says that mokṣa is the complete retreat from the continuous flow of birth and death (जन्ममृत्युप्रवाहनिःशेषनिवृत्तिः). Renunciation of everything is mokṣa says Mahābhārata[26]. Giving up of the acceptance of things of materialistic value is implied by this. Thus, the eternal bliss is achieved through mokṣa, which is considered as turīya puruṣārtha as the attainment of eternal bliss is the final wish of the mankind.
During the analysis of puruṣārthas, the significance of śiṣṭācāra, the conduct of the noble is emphasised. In this transient world, the human body, which is the instrument for accomplishing puruṣārthas, is attained by the good deeds done in the previous birth. The body (vapus)[27] is defined as an instrument to experience joy and sorrow, where seeds in the form of deeds are sown. Those deeds must be good in order to attain happiness. For that, righteous path must be chosen, the medium of which is nīti. The etymology of the word nīti[28] (that which leads) has been well illustrated by the grammarians. That which leads a person on the righteous path is called as nīti. There are many texts written on Nītiśāstra. Earning of wealth in compliance with dharma, enjoyment of pleasure obtained through the money amassed through the righteous path and attainment of liberation after achieving the three goals of dharma, artha and kāma in a righteous manner form the subject matter of Nītiśāstra. Ākhyānasāhitya (Literature of Tale and Fable) is instrumental in the illustration of nīti through curious, strange and humorous incidents. Examples of such literature are Paňcatantra of Viṣṇuśarma, Hitopadeśa of Nārāyaṇa, Puruṣaparīkṣā of Vidyāpati etc. There is another form of Nīti-literature which is in the form of advice while establishing good conduct. The texts of this category include Nītidwiṣaṣṭikā of Sundarapāṇḍya, Nītiśataka and Vairāgyaśataka of Bhartṛhari, Śāntiśataka of Śilhaṇa etc. Anyoktikāvya is yet another form of Nīti-literature, where morals are illustrated indirectly through the elements of allegory and metaphor. Examples of this type are Anyoktimuktālatā of Śambhukavi, Bhāminīvilāsa (First Vilāsa named as Anyāpadeśaśataka) of Panditarāja Jagannātha, Anyāpadeśaśataka of Nīlakaṇṭhadīkṣita etc. There is other type of literature which falls under this category in which wise sayings are collected from the other works and compiled separately like Kavīndravacanasamuccaya, Subhāṣitaratnasandoha of Amitagati, Saduktikarṇāmṛta of Śrīdharadāsa, Sūktimuktāvalī of Jalhaṇa, Subhāṣitasudhānidhi of Sāyaṇācārya, Śārṅgadharapaddhati of Śārṅgadhara, Subhāṣitanīvī of Vedāntadeśika, Subhāṣitāvali of Vallabhadeva, Subhāṣitaratnabhāṇḍāgāra of Śivadatta etc. These texts emphasise noble conduct that aids in the progress of the mankind.
The predominant part of the Nīti-literature is imaginary, in which strange occurrences are seen somewhere, elements of entertainment are found somewhere resulting in the impartment of lessons on morals and ethics. There are two forms of Ākhyānasāhitya namely nītikathā and lokakathā. Nītikathā aims at teaching morals through interesting stories thereby establishing puruṣārthas. The subject matter of this category includes common ethics, political ethics and knowledge on moral practices. In contrary to this, the objective of lokakathā is entertainment only.
The form of nītikathā is seen in some places in Ṛgveda also. In the conversation between the celestial dog Saramā and the demons with the epithet of Paṇī, Saramā gives advice to the demons regarding charity. This episode is found in the 108th sūkta of tenth maṇḍala. Such forms of Ākhyāna are also seen in Brāhmaṇas[29] and Upaniṣads[30]. Fables like these are also found in many places in Mahābhārata and Purāṇas.
Vedic literature is very extensive where puruṣārthas, the goals of the mankind are dealt with elaborately. Since Vedas are diverse and infinite, ancient seers like Vyāsa, Manu and others had composed several works on the dharmaśāstra, itihāsa, purāṇa and upapurāṇa, which are only an elaboration of the ideas contained in the Vedas, with the aim of explaining subtle dharmas to ordinary people. Generally, a layman does not have inclination towards hearing a dry-as-dust lecture on subtle truths. If stories are narrated to illustrate those truths in an easily understandable manner, then even an ordinary person gets interested in listening to them. With this idea only, Sāyaṇacārya, on being requested by Bukka and ordered by Mādhavācārya, had composed the text called Puruṣārthasudhānidhi, after collecting the stories connected with puruṣārthas from Mahābhārata, purāṇas and upapurāṇas. The name of the work signifies that it is a repository of stories which serve the purpose of ambrosia, helpful for the attainment of the puruṣārthas. The objective of the text is to disseminate knowledge on puruṣārthas in an easily understandable manner even to those whose level of intelligence is very low and are incapable of deciding between dos and don’ts.
[1] Ṛgveda – 1.22.18 – त्रीणि पदा वि चक्रमे विष्णुर्गोपा अदाभ्यः। अतो धर्माणि धारयन्॥
[2] Ibid – 1.164.43 – शकमयं धूममारादपश्यं विषूवता पर एनावरेण। उक्षाणं पृश्निमपचन्त वीरास्तानि धर्माणि प्रथमान्यासन्॥
[3] Ibid – 1.164.50 – यज्ञेन यज्ञमयजन्त देवास्तानि धर्माणि प्रथमान्यासन्। ते ह नाकं महिमानः सचन्त यत्र पूर्वे साध्याः सन्ति देवाः॥
[4] Śabdakalpadruma (SKD) – Vol.I, p.52
[5] Ṛgveda – 5.63.7 – धर्मणा मित्रावरुणा विपश्चिता व्रता रक्षेथे असुरस्य मायया। ऋतेन विश्वं भुवनं वि राजथः सूर्यमा धत्थो दिवि चित्र्यं रथम्॥
[6] Baudhāyanadharmasūtra (BDS) – 1.1.1.1, 3, 4 – उपदिष्टो धर्मः प्रतिवेदम्॥ स्मार्तो द्वितीयः॥ तृतीयः शिष्टागमः॥
[7] Manusmṛti (MS) – 2.6 – वेदोऽखिलो धर्ममूलं स्मृतिशीले च तद्विदाम्। आचारश्चैव साधूनामात्मनस्तुष्टिरेव च॥
[8] Taittirīyopaniṣad – 1.11.1
[9] Taittirīyāraṇyaka – 10.63.7
[10] Mahābhārata (MB) – 12.109.11 – धारणाद् धर्ममित्याहुर्धर्मेण विधृताः प्रजाः। यः स्याद् धारणसंयुक्तः स धर्म इति निश्चयः॥
[11] Rāmāyaṇa – 3.37.13
[12] Ṛgveda – 5.42.9 – विसर्माणं कृणुहि वित्तमेषां ये भुञ्जते अपृणन्तो न उक्थैः। अपव्रतान्प्रसवे वावृधानान्ब्रह्मद्विषः सूर्याद्यावयस्व॥
[13] Taittirīyabrāhmaṇa – 1.4.7.45 – एतावान्खलु पुरुषः। यावदस्य वित्तम्।
[14] Taittirīyopaniṣad – 1.11.1 – आचार्याय प्रियं धनमाहृत्य प्रजातन्तुं मा व्यवच्छेत्सीः।
[15] MS – 2.136 – वित्तं बन्धुर्वयः कर्म विद्या भवति पञ्चमी। एतानि मान्यस्थानानि गरीयो यद्यदुत्तरम्॥
[16] Rāmāyaṇa – 2.100.54 – आयस्ते विपुलः कच्चित् कच्चिदल्पतरो व्ययः। अपात्रेषु न ते कच्चित् कोशो गच्छति राघव॥
[17] MB – 12.8.17 – अर्थाद् धर्मश्च कामश्च स्वर्गश्चैव नराधिप। प्राणयात्रापि लोकस्य विना ह्यर्थं न सिद्ध्यति॥
[18] Vācaspatyam – Vol.III, p.1889 – पुंसो या विषयापेक्षा स काम इति भण्यते।
[19] Ṛgveda – 10.129.4 – कामस्तदग्रे समवर्ततादि मनसो रेतः प्रथमं यदासीत्। सतो बन्धुमसति निरविन्दन् हृदि प्रतीष्या कवयो मनीषा॥
[20] Muṇḍakopaniṣad – 3.2.2 – कामान्यः कामयते मन्यमानः स कामभिर्जायते तत्र तत्र। पर्याप्तकामस्य कृतात्मनस्त्विहैव सर्वे प्रविलीयन्ति कामाः॥
[21] Rāmāyaṇa – 2.100.62
[22] MB – 12.167.29 – नाकामः कामयत्यर्थं नाकामो धर्ममिच्छति। नाकामः कामयानोऽस्ति तस्मात् कामो विशिष्यते॥
[23] Sāṅkhyasāra – 2.7.25 – न मोक्षो नभसः पृष्ठे न पाताले न भूतले। सर्वाशासङ्क्षये चेतः क्षयो मोक्ष इति श्रुतेः॥
[24] Maitryupaniṣad – 6.30, p.158 – स हि सर्वकाममयः पुरुषोऽध्यवसायसङ्कल्पाभिमानलिङ्गो बद्धोऽतस्तद्विपरीतो मुक्तः।
[25] Bhavadgītā (BG) – 7.29 – जरामरणमोक्षाय मामाश्रित्य यतन्ति ये। ते ब्रह्म तद्विदुः कृत्स्नमध्यात्मं कर्म चाखिलम्॥
[26] MB – 12.176.8 – आकिञ्चन्यं सुखं लोके पथ्यं शिवमनामयम्। अनमित्रपथो ह्येष दुर्लभः सुलभो मतः॥
[27] SKD – Vol. IV, p.266 – देहान्तरभोगसाधनबीजीभूतानि कर्माण्युप्यन्तेऽत्रेति वपुः।
[28] Bṛhaddhātukusumākara – p.245 – णीञ् प्रापणे; Aṣṭādhyāyī – Sūtrapāṭha – 3.3.94 – स्त्रियां क्तिन्
[29] Tāṇḍyamahābrāhmaṇam – 6.6.8; p.353
[30] Kaṭhopaniṣad (Story of Naciketas)