In Sanskrit, one meaning of Nyaya is likeness, analogy, popular maxim, suitable example, instruction etc. That is, a statement indicating a unique event which happens in the present situation is called ‘Nyaya’. Such illustrative sentences (or sayings) are used in the public when a situation arises. Laukika Nyaya means to give a name to the prevalent and well-known examples in the society and to make an important statement in a few words by using that name at the right place. The use of popular morals helps in expressing ideas in a few words and in a logical manner.
अन्वय व्यतिरेक न्याय is one such illustration which is used by every one in daily life without realising having done so. Anvaya-vyatireka is a type of inference where the reason (hetu) is co-present or co-absent with the major term (saadhya).
One finds the reference to this in Srimad Bhagavatam: II– 9 – 35 and VII-7-24 where it is explained that what the seeker after truth has to grasp is that the Substance which persists (this is anvaya) always through all its transformations into its various effects or forms, but suffers no diminution in the process. (This is vyatireka). It also finds mention in Vidyaranya’s Panchadashi (IV.32) and also in Patanjali Mahabhashya.
The two words anvaya and vyatireka occur often in Vedanta. Anvaya is concordance or agreement and Vyatireka is discordance or difference. In Vedanta, the example of the beads strung to form a necklace is used to explain these two words. The fact that without the string which holds together the beads, there is no necklace of beads is anvaya. The fact that, however, the string is separate from the beads is vyatireka. The all-pervasiveness of the Absolute is anvaya. The distinctness of the Absolute is the vyatireka.
An inference is anvaya-vyatireki when it is based on a middle term which is both positively and negatively related to the major term. The universal relation (vyāpti) in this inference is established by the method of agreement in the presence (anvaya) and agreement in absence (vyātireka). Inferences are important in the law of judiciary because they are used to reach logical conclusions based on observation and background. In law, an inference is a logical conclusion drawn from facts that have already been proven or admitted. An inference is not evidence itself, but rather the result of reasoning from evidence. In that context, anvaya-vyatireka is means to find the truth.
Inferences help us decipher and reach conclusions to find a meaning based on what someone says or writes. Without inference, we would treat what we hear or read in a very literal sense. Inferring is to read between the lines and make assumptions based on smaller details.
People from all walks of life use inference both in their daily and professional lives. Doctors make inferences when they diagnose conditions. They take a peek at X rays, MRIs, observation and communication with the patient for evidence that will lead them to a diagnosis. Crime science investigators make inferences when they follow clues like finger prints, DNA and footprints to find out how and when the crime was committed. Mechanics make inferences when they run diagnostic, tinker round in the engine and chat with one about how the car is acting to figure out what’s wrong under the hood.
Human beings observe, classify, measure, predict, infer, form hypothesis, interpret and even experiment things. Most of these activities are part and parcel of one’s life. Most people engage in such activities in a normal way and do it unaware of the steps. For instance, a student walks into the class room and the teacher tells to clear desk and take a piece of paper and a pencil. He then infers that an assessment will occur or when one enters a house and sees backpacks by the door, small shoes scattered near them; see an art easel and a room with a doll house and a toy box. From these, he infers that there are children in the family or one enters a house which has been ransacked; sees blood on the floor which leads out to the back door. He then infers that a crime has occurred in the house. People interpret their day to day to activities using deductive logical reasoning and inference. Proper understanding and use of anvaya-vyatireka shall help each one to counter check the inference drawn as to its correctness.
In the era of internet, one is flooded with information and every individual is tempted to draw an inference without application of anvaya-vyatireka i.e. verification of cause and result in presence and absence. The inference is a logical conclusion reached by reasoning. However, it is not necessary that the inference be true in all the cases as inferences are tentative and this Nyaya teaches us to read between the lines and arrive at ‘Truth’ persisting in the flood of information before us.
This Nyaya teaches us to be on vigil when loads of information is poured on us, to realise the truth and to read between the lines when critical information is held back.
