Smṛtis on rājadharma:
The seventh, eighth and nineth chapter in Manusmṛti exclusively deal with the rājadharma, where[1] the term rājā has been interpreted by the commentator Kullūkabhaṭṭa as “राजशब्दोऽपि नात्र क्षत्रियजातिवचनः किन्त्वभिषिक्तजनपदपुरपालयितृपुरुषवचनः”. “The ceremony of coronation is the key factor in determining whether a person is eligible to be labelled as the king”. Then only he is legally responsible for the protection of the subjects. In today’s political scenario, the national leader or the state leader is called as the Prime Minister or Chief Minister respectively only after taking oath in the swearing-in-ceremony.
In addition to the general duties like study of ancient scriptures, performance of sacrificial rites, charity and protection of the subjects, Manu[2] adds one more duty namely, abstinence from getting attached to sensual pleasures. Kullūkabhaṭṭa interprets that as the avoidance of the repeated indulgence in the music, dance, women etc. The duty of protecting the subjects gets fulfilled by making them stick to the duties ordained for the varṇas and āśramas. Manu[3] states that this is the underlining factor which necessitated the creation of the king. Showing respect and service to brāhmaṇas has been indicated as the foremost duty of the king where the significance of the quality of humility has been emphasised by Manu[4] in four verses. Manu[5] gives examples of the kings who got destroyed due to the absence of humility and those who prospered due to this quality. The quality of being humble only enables a person to learn from others. This fact has been mentioned by Manu[6] while indicating the qualifications of the king, where the necessity of attaining mastery over Vedas, arthaśātra, the science of polity and economics, ānvīkṣikī, the science of logic and agriculture etc. has been emphasised.
While describing the emotional qualities of the king, Manu[7] says that the control of senses is very important for the king to gain command over the subjects, as there is a greater possibility of him to get attracted towards certain vices. By classifying those vices[8] as those which arise out of lust and those which arise out of anger, Manu conveys the deadly consequences of them.
There is a separate chapter called “rājadharmaprakaraṇa” in Yājňavalkyasmṛti. The essential qualities of the king have been aptly described in three verses[9]. The other matters connected with polity which have been dealt here include the duties of a coronated king, qualifications of the ministers, royal preceptor, service of the king towards the brāhmaṇas, classification of forts, ethics of war, ways of increasing the revenue of the state, importance of counselling, indication of the opportune moments in the implementation of four strategies of sāma, bheda, dāna and daṇḍa, seven limbs of the kingdom, detailed discussion of the law of punishment etc.
The essence of rājadharma as conveyed in Parāśarasmṛti[10] has been briefly explained by the commentator Mādhavācārya as “punishing the wicked and protecting the nobles” (द्विविधो हि राजधर्मः दुष्टशिक्षा शिष्टपरिपालनञ्च). It is further said[11] that the kingship is not attained through the royal lineage or by wearing expensive ornaments but gained by destroying enemies and thereby making the subjects live peacefully. Parāśara[12] lists out seven inherent qualities of a king in general as valour, courage, brilliance, dexterity in all spheres, absence of fleeing tendency in the war, charity, and devotion towards God.
Atrismṛti[13] describes the duties of a king briefly in two verses where the sage Atri compares the duties of the king with the sacrificial rites. He says that punishment of the wicked, honouring the venerable, increasing the revenue through lawful means, impartial towards the seekers of help and protecting the country in every possible way are considered as five great sacrificial rites.
There are five verses in Hārītasmṛti[14] which convey the duties and qualifications of a king. Other than the duties which are generally mentioned in all ancient scriptures, this text makes a special mention of king’s loyalty towards his wife. Knowledge of political ethics, strategies of war and alliance, devotion towards God and brāhmaṇas and belief in the performance of śrāddhakarma of ancestors are other factors mentioned while laying down the qualifications.
There is an exclusive chapter in Gautamasmṛti which deals with rājadharma. While defining the king, Smṛti Sandarbha quotes Gautamasmṛti[15] which says that he is considered as the king being the doer of noble deeds and speaker of truth should have the support of those royal servants who are endowed with suitable qualities. Other qualities are also mentioned which are commonly found in most of the ancient scriptures.
While illustrating the essence of rājadharma in the nineteenth chapter, Vasiṣṭhasmṛti[16] conveys that a king should have the knowledge of deśadharma, jātidharma and kuladharma in order to make the subjects stick to the dharma laid down for them. The quality of humility and abstinence from the vices are specifically advised for the king in Smṛti Sandarbha[17] which quotes Budhasmṛti in this context.
Vṛddhagautamasmṛti conveys the essence of rājadharma wonderfully through the conversation between Lord Kṛṣṇa and Yudhiṣṭhira, where truthfulness, quality of protecting the royal servants and subjects in general, purity of conduct, absence of greediness, strict adherence to laws laid down in the ancient scriptures are specially mentioned. This has also been mentioned in Smṛti Sandarbha[18].
Similar guidelines and instructions are found in Viṣṇusmṛti, Śaṅkhasmṛti, Devalasmṛti, Kapilasmṛti, Lohitasmṛti, Pulastyasmṛti, Auśanasasmṛti, Laghvāśvalāyanasmṛti and Bṛhatparāśarasmṛti.
Thus Smṛtis composed by various sages have dealt with rājadharma exclusively and extensively.
Epics and Purāṇas on rājadharma
The two great epics Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata revolve around the lives of various kings only, where detailed discussion on polity is seen abundantly. The hundredth chapter of Ayodhyākāṇḍa in Rāmāyaṇa is popularly known as kaccitsarga, where the duties of a king have been wonderfully showcased by Lord Rāma. In Mahābhārata, political ethics are scattered throughout the epic and dealt with elaborately especially in Śāntiparva.
Purāṇas also illustrate rājanīti through the examples of many ancient kings. Rājadharma has been beautifully explored in the conversation between mother Madālasā and her son Alarka in Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa[19]. While describing the varṇāśramadharma, sage Vyāsa has highlighted the duties of a king in Brahma Purāṇa[20]. Apart from this, through the life history of several kings such as Vena, Pṛthu, Triśaṅku, Hariścandra etc, political ethics have been explored in detail in this Purāṇa. On being asked by Paraśurāma, Rājadharma has been elaborately explained by his guru Puṣkara in Agni Purāṇa[21] which has been retold by Lord Agni to sage Vasiṣṭha. On being asked by the king Manu, in Matsya Purāṇa, Lord Viṣṇu explains in depth the political ethics. The total number of chapters which deal with this subject is 15 (215 – 229). The topics covered in these chapters include the duties of a king in general, eligibility of the royal servants, the duties of those royal servants and so on. In the same way, one can find the exploration of political ethics definitely in some form in all Puraṇas.
Kāvyas on rājadharma:
Political ethics find place in kāvyas as well. The characteristic features and essential qualifications of the king have been beautifully brought out in the episode of śukanāsopadeśa in the gadyakāvya Kādambarī written by Bāṇabhaṭṭa. Kirātārjunīya, one of the five popular mahākāvyas written by Bhāravi explores rājadharma in detail in several places like the description of the expertise of Duryodhana in the administration of the affairs of the state by the spy, description of the significance of the duties of a king by Draupadī, Bhīma, sage Vyāsa etc. The characteristic features of the author Śūdraka as a king in Mṛcchakaṭika[22], have been aptly conveyed through sūtradhāra. Mudrārākṣasa of Viśākhadatta is the best example in bringing out the best political strategies to win over a very powerful enemy. Bravery of a king in the battlefield has been wonderfully highlighted in various places in the drama Veṇīsamhāra written by Bhaṭṭnārāyaṇa. Śiśupālavadha, one of the five popular mahākāvyas by Māgha, conveys the significance of counselling with the competent personnel before taking decisions on the key factors in the political arena through the conversation among Lord Kṛṣṇa, Balarāma and Uddhava, through which the duties of a king have been explored in detail. Besides this, in the second canto, political ethics have been scattered here and there subtly in several places. The importance of the quality of imparting humility to the subjects, protecting them during distress and taking care of them through the supply of food have been emphasised through the king Dilīpa in Raghuvamśa[23]. There are so many examples like these found in our prose and poetry.
Other texts on rājadharma:
There also exist a few texts which deal with polity extensively. The leading work on rājanīti is Arthaśāstra composed by Kauṭilya. Other texts include Bārhaspatyasūtra, Nītisāra of Kāmandaka, Nītiprakāśikā of Vaiśampāyana, Śukranītisāra, Mānasollāsa attributed to Someśvara, Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja, Nītivākyāmṛta of Somadeva, a portion of Kṛtyakalpataru namely Rājanītikāṇḍa written by Lakṣmīdhara, Rājanītiratnākara of Caṇḍeśvara, Rājanītiprakāśa of Mitramiśra, Nītimayūkha of Nīlakaṇṭha, Rājadharmakaustubha of Anantadeva, Daṇḍanīti of Keśavapaṇḍita and so on.
Conclusion
From the brief discussion given above, the antiquity of Rājanītiśāstra can be well understood. It can also be known as to how much of importance was given to the law and order in the society. While emphasising the well-being of the society, humans were not only considered but also flora and fauna. It is wonderful to know that the rules and regulations laid down several thousand years ago are relevant even today and for the times to come.
Note:
[1] MS – 7.1 – राजधर्मान्प्रवक्ष्यामि यथावृत्तो भवेन्नृपः। संभवश्च यथा तस्य सिद्धिश्च परमा यथा॥ [2] MS – 1.89 – प्रजानां रक्षणं दानमिज्याऽध्ययनमेव च। विषयेष्वप्रसक्तिश्च क्षत्रियस्य समासतः॥ [3] ibid – 7.35 – स्वे स्वे धर्मे निविष्टानां सर्वेषामनुपूर्वशः। वर्णानामाश्रमाणां च राजा सृष्टोऽभिरक्षिता॥ [4] ibid – 7.37 – 40 [5] ibid – 7.41, 42 – वेनो विनष्टोऽविनयान्नहुषश्चैव पार्थिवः। सुदाः पैजवनश्चैव सुमुखो निमिरेव च॥ पृथुस्तु विनयाद्राज्यं प्राप्तवान्मनुरेव च। कुबेरश्च धनैश्वर्यं ब्राह्मण्यं चैव गाधिजः॥ [6] ibid – 7.43 – त्रैविद्येभ्यस्त्रयीं विद्यां दण्डनीतिं च शाश्वतीम्। आन्वीक्षिकीं चात्मविद्यां वार्तारम्भांश्च लोकतः॥ [7] ibid – 7.44 – इन्द्रियाणां जये योगं समातिष्ठेद्दिवानिशम्। जितेन्द्रियो हि शक्नोति वशे स्थापयितुं प्रजाः॥ [8] ibid – 7.45 – 48 [9] Yājňavalkasmṛti (YS) – 1.13.309 – 311 – महोत्साहः स्थूललक्षः कृतज्ञो वृद्धसेवकः।विनीतः सत्त्वसम्पन्नः कुलीनः सत्यवाक् शुचिः॥ अदीर्घसूत्रः स्मृतिमानक्षुद्रोऽपरुषस्तथा। धार्मिकोऽव्यसनश्चैव प्राज्ञः शूरो रहस्यवित्॥ स्वरन्ध्रगोप्ताऽऽन्वीक्षिक्यां दण्डनीत्यां तथैव च। विनीतस्त्वथ वार्तायां त्रय्यां चैव नराधिपः॥
[10] Parāśarasmṛti – 1.65 – क्षत्रियो हि प्रजा रक्षन् शस्त्रपाणिः प्रदण्डवान्। निर्जित्य परसैन्यानि क्षितिं धर्मेण पालयेत्॥ [11] ibid – 1.67 – न श्रीः कुलक्रमायाता भूषणोल्लिखिताऽपि वा। खड्गेनाक्रम्य भुञ्जीत वीरभोग्यां वसुन्धराम्॥ [12] ibid – 1.69 – शौर्यं तेजो धृतिर्दाक्ष्यं युद्धे चाप्यपलायनम्। दानमीश्वरभावश्च क्षात्रं कर्म स्वभावजम्॥ [13] Atrismṛti – 28, 29 – दुष्टस्य दण्डः सुजनस्य पूजा न्यायेन कोशस्य च संप्रवृद्धिः।अपक्षपातोऽर्थिषु राष्ट्ररक्षा पञ्चैव यज्ञाः कथिता नृपाणाम्॥ यत्प्रजापालने पुण्यं प्राप्नुवन्तीह पार्थिवाः॥ न तु क्रतुसहस्रेण प्राप्नुवन्ति द्विजोत्तमाः॥
[14] Hārītasmṛti – 2.2 – 5 – राज्यस्थः क्षत्रियश्चापि प्रजा धर्मेण पालयन्। कुर्यादध्ययनं सम्यग् यजेद्यज्ञान् यथाविधि॥दद्याद् दानं द्विजातिभ्यो धर्मबुद्धिसमन्वितः। स्वभार्यानिरतो नित्यं षड्भागार्हः सदा नृपः॥नीतिशास्त्रार्थकुशलः सन्धिविग्रहतत्त्ववित्। देवब्राह्मणभक्तश्च पितृकार्यपरस्तथा॥ धर्मेण यजनं कार्यमधर्मपरिवर्जनम्। उत्तमां गतिमाप्नोति क्षत्रियोऽप्येवमाचरन्॥
[15] Smṛti Sandarbha – V.4, 11.1 – राजा सर्वस्येष्टे ब्राह्मणवर्जं साधुकारी स्यात् साधुवादी त्रय्यामान्वीक्षिक्याञ्चाभिविनीतः शुचिर्जितेन्द्रियो गुणवत्सहायोपायसम्पन्नः समः प्रजासु स्याद्धितञ्चासां कुर्वीत तमुपर्यासीनमधस्था उपासीरन्नन्ये ब्राह्मणेभ्यस्तेऽप्येनं मन्येरन्॥ [16] Vasiṣṭhasmṛti – 19 – देशधर्मजातिधर्मकुलधर्मान् सर्वान् वैताननुप्रविश्य राजा चतुरो वर्णान् स्वधर्मे स्थापयेत्। [17] Smṛti Sandarbha – V.4, p.2138 – तस्य धर्मो विनीतोऽव्यसनी निरूपितमण्डलाध्यक्षः सन्धिविग्रहासनयानसंश्रयद्वैधीभावात् सामर्थ्यं कारयेत्। [18] ibid – V.4, 2.21 – 24 – क्षत्रियोऽपि स्थितो राज्ये स्वधर्मं परिपालयन्॥ सम्यक् प्रजाः पालयिता स्वधर्मनिरतः सदा। यज्ञदाननिरतो धीरः स्वधर्मनिरतः शुचिः॥ शास्त्रानुकारी तत्त्वज्ञः प्रजाकार्यपरायणः। विप्रेभ्यः कामदो नित्यं भृत्यानां भरणे रतः॥ सत्यसन्धः शुचिर्नित्यलोभदम्भविवर्जितः। क्षत्रिय उत्तमां याति गतिं देवनिषेविताम्॥ [19] Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa – 27 [20] Brahma Purāṇa – 114 [21] Agni Purāṇa (AP) – 217 – 241 [22] Mṛcchakaṭika – 1.5 – समरव्यसनी प्रमादशून्यः ककुदो वेदविदां तपोधनश्च। परवारणबाहुयुद्धलुब्धः क्षितिपालः किल शूद्रको बभूव॥ [23] Raghuvamśa – 1.24 – प्रजानां विनयाधानाद् रक्षणाद् भरणादपि। स पिता पितरस्तासां केवलं जन्महेतवः॥